Non-invasive embedded system hardware/firmware anomaly detection based on the electric current signature. (January 2022)

• Record Type: Journal Article
• Authors: de Oliveira, José Paulo G.; J.A. Bastos-Filho, Carmelo; Oliveira, Sergio Campello
• Is Part Of: Advanced engineering informatics. Volume 51(2022)
• Publication Date: 2022-01
• Subjects: Anomaly detection -- Embedded systems test -- Autoencoders -- Deep learning -- Random forest; ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter -- AUC Area Under the Curve -- DUT Device Under Test -- DWT Discrete Wavelet Transform -- FNR False Negative Rate -- FPR False Positive Rate -- FW Firmware -- HW Hardware -- L2 distance Euclidean distance between two vectors -- mtry Number of variables randomly sampled as candidates at each split -- Ntrees Number of trees to grow -- PCB Printed Circuit Board -- ROC Receiver Operating Characteristic -- SIFT Scale-Invariant Feature Transform -- TNR True Negative Rate -- TPR True Positive Rate -- β decision threshold weight -- ΔT window length -- λo decision threshold -- μOK anomaly-free reconstruction error mean -- σOK anomaly-free reconstruction standard deviation; Computer-aided engineering -- Periodicals; Engineering -- Data processing -- Periodicals; 620.00285
• DOI: 10.1016/j.aei.2021.101519
• Languages: English
• ISSNs: 1474-0346

Abstract

Graphical abstract: Highlights: Industry 4.0 demands flexible and non-intrusive testing tools. Electric current signature is analyzed using autoencoders and random forest. Hardware and Software anomaly is detected by image comparison. Anomaly detection requires no contact to the tested circuit. Given the decision threshold, the overall accuracy is 100% Decision threshold is empirically estimated using only anomaly-free class data. Abstract: Quality control is a critical aspect of the modern electronic circuit industry. In addition to being a pre-requisite to proper functioning, circuit quality is closely related to safety, security, and economic issues. Quality control has been reached through system testing. Meanwhile, device miniaturization and multilayer Printed Circuit Boards have increased the electronic circuit test complexity considerably. Hence, traditional test processes based on manual inspections have become outdated and inefficient. More recently, the concept of Advanced Manufacturing or Industry 4.0 has enabled the manufacturing of customized products, tailored to the changing customers' demands. This scenario points out additional requirements for electronic system testing: it demands a high degree of flexibility in production processes, short design and manufacturing cycles, and cost control. Thus, there is a demand for circuit testing systems that present effectiveness and accessibility without placing numerous test points. This work is focused on automated test solutions based on machine learning, which are becoming popular with advances in computational tools. We present a new testing approach that uses autoencoders to detect firmware or hardware anomalies based on the electric current signature. We built a test set-up using an embedded system development board to evaluate the proposed approach. We implemented six firmware versions that can run independently on the test board – one of them is considered anomaly-free. In order to obtain a reference frame to our results, two other classification techniques (a computer vision algorithm and a random forest classification model) were employed to detect anomalies on the same development board. The outcomes of the experiments demonstrated that the proposed test method is highly effective. For several test scenarios, the correct detection rate was above 99%. Test results showed that autoencoder and random forest approaches are effective. However, random forests require all data classes to be trained. Training an autoencoder, on the other hand, only requires the reference (anomaly-free) class.