Drugs of abuse, cytostatic drugs and iodinated contrast media in tap water from the Madrid region (central Spain):A case study to analyse their occurrence and human health risk characterization. (January 2016)

• Record Type: Journal Article
• Authors: Mendoza, A.; Zonja, B.; Mastroianni, N.; Negreira, N.; López de Alda, M.; Pérez, S.; Barceló, D.; Gil, A.; Valcárcel, Y.
• Is Part Of: Environment international. Volume 86(2016:Jan.)
• Page Start: 107
• Page End: 118
• Publication Date: 2016-01
• Subjects: 6ACM 6-acetylmorphine -- ADI acceptable daily intake -- ALP alprazolam -- AM amphetamine -- ATC Anatomical Therapeutic Classification -- ATS amphetamine-type stimulant -- BE benzoylecgonine -- BQ benchmark quotient -- BW body weight -- CAF caffeine -- CBD cannabidiol -- CBN cannabinol -- CE cocaethylene -- CF coagulation-flocculation -- CO cocaine -- CP cyclophosphamide -- D decantation -- DAs drugs of abuse -- DF disinfection -- DIA diazepam -- DIAT diatrizoate -- DWEL drinking water equivalent level -- DWSP drinking water sampling point -- DWTP drinking water treatment plant -- ECHA European Chemicals Agency -- EDADES Spanish household survey on alcohol and drugs -- EDDP 2-ethylene-1, 5-dimethyl-3, 3-diphenylpyrrolidine -- EFSA European Food Safety Authority -- EP emerging pollutant -- EPH ephedrine -- GAC granular activated carbon -- GACF granular activated carbon filtration -- HER heroin -- IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer -- ICM iodinated contrast media -- IDX iodixanol -- INE Spanish Statistics Institute -- IngR drinking water ingestion rate -- IOH iohexol -- IOM iomeprol -- IOP iopromide -- IPM iopamidol -- KET ketamine -- LC liquid chromatography -- LO(A)EL lowest observed (adverse) effect level -- LOD limit of detection -- LOQ limit of quantification -- LOR lorazepam -- LSD lysergic acid diethylamide -- MA methamphetamine -- MEPH mephedrone -- MDMA 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine -- MEC measured environmental concentration -- METH methadone -- MS/MS tandem mass spectrometry -- MS mass spectrometry -- MOR morphine -- MR Madrid Region -- MSSSI Spanish Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality -- n.a. not available -- NO(A)EL no observed (adverse) effect level -- O-OH-LSD 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD -- OH-THC 11-hydroxy-THC -- PET polyethylene terephthalate -- OZ ozonisation -- PCL pre-chlorination -- pGLV provisional guideline value -- POX pre-oxidation -- RfD reference dose -- RO reverse osmosis -- SF sand filtration -- SPE solid phase extraction -- SRM selected reaction monitoring transition -- TDI tolerable daily intake -- THC Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol -- THC-COOH 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol -- TP transformation product -- UF uncertainty factor -- UFT ultrafiltration -- UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime -- US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency -- WHO World Health Organization -- WWTP wastewater treatment plant; Pharmaceuticals -- Illicit drugs -- Anti-cancer drugs -- Drinking water -- Human health risk characterization; Environmental protection -- Periodicals; Environmental health -- Periodicals; Environmental monitoring -- Periodicals; Environmental Monitoring -- Periodicals; Environnement -- Protection -- Périodiques; Hygiène du milieu -- Périodiques; Environnement -- Surveillance -- Périodiques; Environmental health; Environmental monitoring; Environmental protection; Periodicals; 333.705
• DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2015.11.001
• Languages: English
• ISSNs: 0160-4120

Abstract

Abstract: This work analyses the presence of forty-eight emerging pollutants, including twenty-five drugs of abuse and metabolites, seventeen cytostatic drugs and six iodinated contrast media, in tap water from the Madrid Region. Analysis of the target compounds in the tap water was performed by means of (on-line or off-line) solid-phase extraction followed by analysis by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. A preliminary human health risk characterization was undertaken for each individual compound and for different groups of compounds with a common mechanism of action found in tap water. The results of the study showed the presence of eight out of the twenty-five drugs of abuse and metabolites analysed, namely, the cocainics cocaine and benzoylecgonine, the amphetamine-type stimulants ephedrine, 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and methamphetamine, the opioid methadone and its metabolite 2-ethylene-1, 5-dimethyl-3, 3-diphenylpyrrolidine and, finally caffeine at concentrations ranging from 0.11 to 502 ng L − 1 . Four out of the six analysed iodinated contrast media, namely, diatrizoate, iohexol, iomeprol and iopromide, were detected in at least one sample, with concentration values varying between 0.4 and 5 ng L − 1 . Cytostatic compounds were not detected in any sample. Caffeine was the substance showing the highest concentrations, up to 502 ng L − 1, mainly in the drinking water sampling point located in Madrid city. Among the other drugs of abuse, the most abundant compounds were cocaine and benzoylecgonine, detected at concentrations ranging from 0.11 to 86 ng L − 1 and from 0.11 to 53 ng L − 1, respectively. Regarding iodinated contrast media, iohexol was the most ubiquitous and abundant compound, with a frequency of detection of 100% and concentrations from 0.5 to 5.0 ng L − 1 in basically the same range in all sampling points. Taking into account the results and types of treatment applied, ozonisation plus granular activated carbon filtration appears to be efficient in the removal of cocaine and benzoylecgonine. For the amphetamine-type stimulants, opioids and caffeine, ozonisation plus granular activated carbon filtration and ultrafiltration plus reverse osmosis showed higher removal efficiency than sand filtration. The human health risk characterization performed indicates that the lifetime consumption of the tap waters analysed has associated a negligible human health concern. Highlights: Drugs of abuse and iodinated contrast media were found in the tap water from Madrid. Cytostatic drugs were not detected in this matrix. The highest concentrations corresponded to caffeine, followed by cocainics. No potential human health concern due to lifetime consumption of this water